by Lewis Loflin
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was a deeply contradictory figure whose personal failings and philosophical ideas profoundly shaped the intellectual landscape of his era. Engaging in a long-term relationship with Thérèse Levasseur, an illiterate servant, Rousseau fathered five children, all of whom he abandoned at an orphanage, despite his public advocacy for virtue and education. His seminal work, The Social Contract (1762), transformed French Deism into a radical ideological force, introducing the concept of the “general will,” which played a significant role in the violent excesses of the French Revolution. While Voltaire’s skepticism was marked by a detached rationality, Rousseau’s fervent idealism, tainted by his moral inconsistencies, contributed to a more tumultuous legacy.
In The Social Contract, Rousseau rejected John Locke’s emphasis on individual consent, proposing instead the concept of the “general will”—a collective authority embodied by the state, which he elevated above individual rights, viewing rights as grants from the state rather than inherent or divinely bestowed. English Deism, rooted in the principles of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and influenced by Isaac Newton’s concept of an active deity (see English Deism), maintained a moral foundation that Rousseau’s romantic idealism lacked. He famously declared that man is “born free” but “everywhere in chains,” attributing human suffering to societal structures—a utopian vision that stood in stark contrast to his personal irresponsibility as a father.
Rousseau’s relationship with Thérèse Levasseur resulted in five pregnancies, yet he placed all of their children in an orphanage while simultaneously writing Emile (1762), a treatise on education that emphasized the moral and intellectual development of the individual. Exhibiting signs of paranoia, he frequently perceived conspiracies against him, yet he championed ideals of equality and communal virtue. This dissonance between his public philosophy and private conduct exemplifies the contradictions that characterized his life. French Deism, already influenced by Voltaire’s elitist rationalism, embraced Rousseau’s impassioned rhetoric, blending Voltaire’s skepticism with Rousseau’s moral posturing (see Voltaire).
Rousseau’s ideas provided ideological fuel for the French Revolution of 1789. The Cult of Reason (1792–1794) transformed religious spaces, including the Notre-Dame of Strasbourg, into secular venues, complete with symbolic figures such as a “Goddess of Reason” in ceremonial processions (see Cult of Reason). Maximilien Robespierre, an ardent admirer of Rousseau, adapted the “general will” into the Cult of the Supreme Being (1794), a Deist-inspired framework that sought to promote civic virtue but ultimately fueled the Reign of Terror (1793–1794) (see French Deism). Under this regime, the pursuit of equality became a justification for mass executions, prioritizing ideological conformity over meaningful reform.
In contrast, English Deism influenced figures like Thomas Jefferson, who drew upon the concept of “Nature’s God” to articulate a vision of liberty grounded in individual rights (see Jefferson). Rousseau’s interpretation of “reason,” however, fostered chaos, enforcing conformity through violence rather than fostering consensual governance. His personal hypocrisy—advocating universal love while neglecting his own children—further underscores the disconnect between his ideals and actions.
The concept of the “general will” outlived Robespierre, laying the groundwork for ideologies such as socialism and fascism, which prioritized state authority over individual liberty. While Voltaire critiqued organized religion with sharp wit, Rousseau elevated the collective will to a near-divine status, inspiring revolutionary fervor. English Deism, through traditions like Socinianism and Anglican rationalism, maintained a balanced approach to reason (see English Rationalism). In contrast, Rousseau’s influence in France contributed to cultural upheaval, paving the way for Napoleon’s wars and later Marxist ideologies, all of which can trace their roots to his revolutionary thought. For further exploration, see Deism Origins or Deism Mainpage.
Wikipedia; The Social Contract and Emile by Jean-Jacques Rousseau; works by Will Durant.
Thanks to Grok (xAI) for drafting aid. My edits, my take.
Quoting Thomas Paine:
I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond this life. I believe the equality of man, and I believe that religious duties consist in doing justice, loving mercy, and endeavoring to make our fellow-creatures happy.
Quoting Thomas Jefferson:
On the contrary. I hold (without appeal to revelation) that when we take a view of the universe...it is impossible for the human mind not to perceive and feel a conviction of design, consummate skill, and indefinite power in every atom of its composition...We see, too evident proofs of the necessity of a superintending power to maintain the universe in its course and order...
Quoting Christoph Cardinal Schonborn:
What could be more fundamental to science than the assumption that the explorability and thereby the cognizability of reality arises due to its bearing the handwriting of its author? God speaks the language of his creation, and our spirit, which is likewise his creation, is able to perceive it, to hear it, to comprehend it.