Author: Will Durant
Excerpt from The Age of Faith (1950, pp. 239-245)
In 622 CE, Muhammad arrived in Yathrib, later renamed Medinat al-Nabi, or "City of the Prophet," located on the western edge of the central Arabian plateau. Compared to Mecca, Medina was a lush oasis with numerous gardens, palm groves, and farms. As Muhammad entered, various groups vied to host him, some even grasping his camel’s halter to persuade him. He wisely declared, “The choice lies with the camel; let him advance freely,” allowing the animal to determine his resting place, thus avoiding rivalry and framing his new home as divinely chosen. Where the camel stopped, Muhammad built a mosque and two homes—one for his wife Sauda and one for Aisha—later adding more as his family grew.
Leaving Mecca had severed many kinship ties, so Muhammad sought to forge new bonds through religious brotherhood in a theocratic state. To ease tensions between the Meccan Refugees (Muhajirin) and the Medinan Helpers (Ansar), he paired each Refugee with a Helper as adoptive brothers, uniting them in worship at the mosque. During the first ceremony there, Muhammad ascended the pulpit, proclaimed, “Allah is most great!” and led the congregation in prayer, bowing and prostrating to symbolize submission to Allah—the essence of Islam, meaning “to surrender” or “to make peace.” Muslims, or “those who have made their peace with God,” have followed this ritual ever since, whether in mosques, deserts, or foreign lands. Sermons often accompanied these prayers, frequently announcing new revelations and guiding the community’s weekly actions.
Muhammad’s authority in Medina extended to both religious and civic matters, addressing social organization, daily morals, and intertribal relations, with no distinction between secular and religious affairs. He was both spiritual leader and ruler. However, not all Medinans accepted his leadership. Many Arabs, termed “the Disaffected,” remained skeptical, wary of losing traditions and autonomy or becoming entangled in conflict. Most of Medina’s Jews adhered to their faith and maintained trade ties with the Meccan Quraish, prompting Muhammad to draft a conciliatory agreement:
The Jews who attach themselves to our commonwealth shall be protected from all insults and vexations; they shall have an equal right with our own people to our assistance and good offices; they... shall form with the Muslims one composite nation; they shall practice their religion as freely as the Muslims... They shall join the Muslims in defending Yathrib against all enemies. All future disputes between those who accept this charter shall be referred, under God, to the Prophet.
Jewish tribes like the Banu-Nadhir, Banu-Kuraiza, and Banu-Kainuka initially accepted this pact. However, the arrival of 200 Meccan families created a food shortage. Muhammad addressed this by authorizing raids on passing caravans, a common practice among Arab tribes at the time. Raiders kept four-fifths of the spoils, with one-fifth allocated to the Prophet for religious and charitable purposes; fallen raiders’ shares supported their widows, and they were promised paradise.
One raid during the sacred month of Rajab in 623 CE, which resulted in a man’s death, stirred controversy in both Medina and Mecca due to its timing. In 624 CE, Muhammad led 300 men to intercept a rich caravan from Syria at the Wadi Badr, 20 miles south of Medina. Abu Sufyan, leading the caravan, altered his route and summoned 900 Quraish warriors from Mecca. Despite being outnumbered, Muhammad’s forces achieved a decisive victory, which he attributed to Allah as a sign of divine favor. The battle yielded significant spoils and prisoners, some of whom were executed for prior persecutions in Mecca, while others were ransomed. Abu Sufyan, however, survived and vowed vengeance.
Strengthened by this victory, Muhammad faced internal dissent. Asma, a Medinan poetess, criticized him in verse and was killed by a blind Muslim, Omeir, an act Muhammad condoned. Afak, a centenarian Jewish convert, and Kab ibn al-Ashraf, a poet who abandoned Islam, were also assassinated for their opposition, seen as threats to the nascent state. The Jews of Medina, initially aligned with Muhammad, grew disillusioned as he distanced himself from their traditions, shifting the qibla (prayer direction) from Jerusalem to the Kaaba in 624 CE. A minor incident involving a Muslim woman in the Banu-Kainuka market escalated into violence, leading Muhammad to besiege their quarter for 15 days. The tribe surrendered and was expelled, leaving their possessions behind.
In 625 CE, Abu Sufyan led 3,000 men to the hill of Uhud near Medina, seeking revenge for Badr. Muhammad’s 1,000 warriors were defeated, and he sustained serious wounds, though he survived. Abu Sufyan’s wife Hind, who lost family at Badr, desecrated the body of Hamza, a fallen Muslim. Thinking Muhammad dead, Abu Sufyan withdrew. Six months later, Muhammad expelled the Banu-Nadhir Jews, accusing them of conspiring against him, allowing them to take limited possessions as they left. He redistributed their date orchards to support his household and the Refugees.
In 626 CE, the Quraish, supported by the Banu-Kuraiza Jews, attacked Medina with 10,000 men. Unable to confront them directly, Muhammad had a trench dug around the city, thwarting the siege. After 20 days, the Quraish retreated due to harsh weather. Muhammad then turned on the Banu-Kuraiza, who surrendered after a siege. Refusing to convert, their 600 fighting men were executed, and their women and children were enslaved, a decision reflecting the harsh norms of warfare at the time.
Muhammad proved adept as both a general and diplomat, leading 27 of 65 campaigns over his decade in Medina. In 628 CE, he proposed peace to the Quraish, offering caravan safety in exchange for pilgrimage rights to the Kaaba. The Quraish demanded a year of peace first, and Muhammad agreed to a ten-year truce, known as the Truce of Hudaybiyyah. To appease his followers, he led a raid against the Khaibar Jews, who surrendered after a fierce defense. They were permitted to remain and farm, yielding half their produce to the Muslims. Most survivors were spared, though their leader Kinana and his cousin were executed for concealing wealth. Muhammad married Safiya, a young Jewish woman from the community.
In 629 CE, 2,000 Muslims entered Mecca peacefully under the truce, performing the Kaaba pilgrimage while the Quraish withdrew to the hills. Muhammad’s reverence for the Black Stone, despite rejecting other idols, impressed many Meccans, leading figures like Khalid and Amr to convert. In 630 CE, citing a breach of the truce by a Quraish-allied tribe, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 men. Abu Sufyan, recognizing the overwhelming force, allowed an unopposed entry. Muhammad declared a general amnesty, sparing most enemies, destroyed the Kaaba’s idols except the Black Stone, and proclaimed Mecca the Holy City of Islam, restricting access to believers. Eight years after his flight, the once-persecuted prophet had become the master of Mecca.
Excerpts from Will Durant's The Age of Faith Pages 162-186 Pub. 1950
